“Letter from Birmingham Jail” Literary Analys Essay

Martin Luther King, Jr.’s, â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail,† was written in 1963; during the time African Americans were fighting for equality among races. We can tell this by the vocabulary used in his writing such as â€Å"Negro,† which was used at one time, and is no longer considered, â€Å"politically correct. â€Å" The purpose for the letter is that Martin Luther King Jr. was trying to convince the white clergymen that him and his â€Å"People’s† actions were completely unnecessary for the situation. When doing this, he uses critical and persuasive tones to try to influence the reader to agree with him. Martin Luther King Jr. provides a valid argument using logos, pathos, and ethos throughout his letter. The use of comparison in Dr. King’s letter makes the African American’s trouble of segregation seems, just about holy. He compares being arrested for his peaceful but illegal actions to the crucifixion of Jesus for his â€Å"unique God-consciousness and never-ceasing devotion.† Martin Luther King, Jr. ties himself to God by suggesting that above constitutional rights and legal laws are God-given rights, and these rights are the ones that he and his followers are supporting. He says that just laws, are laws that â€Å"Square with moral law or the law of God.† King resumes this religious association in his last paragraph, where he mentions blacks who conduct sit-ins as â€Å"children of God† who stand up for â€Å"the most scare Values in our Judeo-Christian heritage.† These similarities make Dr. King and his men seem to be fighting an almost heavenly cause, one that has the support of God and of history. King also uses his voice through writing to educe emotion. Aside from his associations to God and Socrates, which may help religious readers better connect to his message, Martin Luther King Jr., writes about the emotional suffering that blacks went through due to segregation and prejudice. He replies to whites telling blacks to â€Å"wait† for desegregation by bringing up several murders committed by whites on blacks, including lynching, drowning, and police cruelty. He continues on these emotional out looks by expressing how children begin to become disturbed by segregation when they realize that they are considered lesser to whites. King uses definite examples, such as a daughter who finds out that she can’t visit an amusement park because it is closed to colored children, and a son who asks, â€Å"Daddy, why do white people treat colored people so mean?† He shows how the build-up of these thoughts in black children eventually turn into hatred for whites when he says, â€Å"There comes a time when the cup of endurance runs over, and men are no longer willing to be plunged into the abyss of despair.† All of these statements help the reader see just how blacks were disturbed beyond decency and rightfulness. King’s use of emotional writing helps readers develop sympathy for the segregated. Martin Luther King Jr., is trying to tell the white clergymen what he feels they are doing wrong. He uses so many different emotional pulls at the attempt to grab their attention. He does a great job of doing this through referring to the bible and about children. Through the use of rhetorical strategies, Martin Luther King Jr. countered the clergymen’s argument. He also got their attention due to his unique strategy of directly addressing his readers, the clergymen, to create the base of his argument. From there, King is able to shatter his opponent’s claims. This way of arguing allowed King to present his argument with more authority to achieve his goal: justify the reasons for nonviolent demonstrations against segregation. I feel as if Martin Luther King’s â€Å"Letter From Birmingham Jail† had a great impact on the rights of black people during his time. The fact that is still read today proves it’s a great piece of writing. From my point of view he was in the right with every opinion he expressed; I honestly don’t see how you couldn’t agree with him. His writing is not only changing the world, but is entertainment to read. In the closing of his letter he says â€Å"I hope this letter finds you strong in the faith. I also hope that the circumstances will soon make it possible for me to meet each of you, not as integrationist or a civil-rights leader but as a fellow clergymen and a Christian brother.† This is the hope of many people; we are getting closer each day to having his hope become a reality. I believe this letter had a huge impact on many people’s lives, and will continue to change the world.

The Fight for Women’s Rights

Today, women have more liberty to do as they please. There are many positions in companies held by women. There was even a woman who ran for presidency in 1872. Additionally, there are many companies founded and ran by women. These show that home is not the only place for women, and they should not be tied as individuals running the house while their husbands work. The freedom that women have today cannot be possible without the events in the past that gave them identity in a society initially dominated by men. Women in the Past and Their Place in Society Time and again, people bore this thinking that women were just â€Å"a creative source of human life. † Many people considered them as forever inferior to men, creations that were under the opposite sex. Furthermore, women were constantly referred to as source of temptation. Even in other countries, women were viewed as children, meaning they would still be inferior to men. In Greek mythology, Pandora opened the box and was then responsible for all the unhappiness among mankind. This was the same viewpoint among Christians in the early times. For instance, St. Jerome believed that â€Å"Woman is the gate of the devil, the path of wickedness, the sting of the serpent, in a word a perilous object. † This was agreed by Thomas Aquinas, a Christian theologian who believed that the primary role of women is for conception. He further claimed that in other things, men are better assisted by their fellow men (Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia, 1995). The lack of women's rights has placed women in delicate situations. During the 17th century, some women were believed to be witches, and were executed. The majority, consisting of men, believed that the weaker sex was more likely to be corrupted by the devil. Interestingly, most of the women charged with witchcraft were brave or stubborn while some were childless, spinsters, or successful. These were the characters that were not in the Puritan idea of femininity (Kendall, 2001, p. 9). Furthermore, the past seen women as domestic partners, tending about the orchard, or making cheese or baking pies. Women were also serving guests and cleaning the house. Aside from numerous household chores, many of these women have many children to feed and take care of. A typical family would have twelve to thirteen children, aside from extended families. The father was seen to be the head of the family, and this belief was taken from Bible passages which says that man leads the woman. Furthermore, special emphasis was put on the role of women to be submissive on their husbands (Kendall, 2001, p. 10-11). Additionally, books were published which further strengthened the division of labor between man and woman. An author, George Savile, claimed that men were created more intelligent and logical than their counterpart. Thus, men should be the head of families, businesses, and enterprises. Also, Savile emphasized the woman's need to have a husband. And for women who were not happy with their married lives, they should just â€Å"make the best of it† (Kendall, 2001,p. -11). Many colonies had fewer unmarried women. This was because life was not easy for spinsters, or those unmarried women. For instance, they did not have many opportunities to earn. As a result, their parents or brothers or married sisters provided them with their expenses. When this happened, the unmarried women would help care for their relatives children or clean the house (Kendall, 2001, p. 11) Women also did not have liberty with money. Laws did not have provisions for women regarding owning a property or making contracts. It was the men who have the liberty to sell their possessions according to his judgment. Further, when a single woman has money, it becomes the property of her husband upon their marriage. Women lacked the legal right to the money they earned. On top of this, her belongings could be seized by creditors when his husband lacked the money to pay his debts. It was also the men's discretion to leave their properties to anyone upon their death. This power came to be called as â€Å"the apron-string hold. The only right that women have was only a one-third of their property after the death of the husband (Kendall, 2001,p. 11-12). Women in the past also did not have rights over their children. Under the law, the children were the property of the husbands. In cases when a couple divorces, the sole custody of the children is to the father. Men also have the right to grant custody of the children to anyone but their wives. In addition, laws also permitted husbands to physically discipline their wives. This means that husbands could whip their wives for as long as they want provided that the whip was not thicker than his thumb. This was known to be the â€Å"rule of thumb. † However, this was not seen as oppression against women, but instead it was an assertion of the women's right not to be beaten severely (Kendall, 2001, p. 12). Women were also considered as the weaker sex. They were thought be squeamish and unable to do heavy chores. During the preindustrial times, women were assigned to domestic chores while heavier tasks were done by men. The belief that women were the weaker sex, as seen from the division of labor, forgot to consider that domestic chores, including taking care of children and other tasks, required sustained labor. However, recent studies showed that women have greater tolerance for pain compared to men, and live longer and more resistant to some diseases (Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia, 1995). In opportunities for education, the provision for women came as second to that for men. During the colonial times, girls learned to read and write from dame schools. They could join schools for boys during the summer when boys were working and there were vacant seat in classrooms. Fortunately, changes were in store for the education of both sexes. The late 19th century witnessed the increase in the number of women students. There were colleges and universities founded for women, and the schools for boys also began to admit women students. By 1870, one-fifth of students from colleges and universities were women. It further increased during the early 1900s (Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia, 1995). In addition, the traditional role of women as child-bearers gradually changed. It used to be that people has this stereotypal opinion about women whose place is at home. As times changed, women gained freedom and a voice in choosing contraception or undergoing legalized abortion. These choices have given them greater control over how many children they wanted to bear. Despite these positive changes, women were still tied to their roles as mothers and wives. Most of them were talented but did not have freedom to pursue studying or other careers (Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia, 1995). In place of formal education, many young women learned things from their mothers. They were expected to learn cooking and caring for children as preparation for their future roles. During the 1960s, tests were conducted that showed the scholastic achievement of young girls as higher during the early grades. The explanation behind this finding was the decline in the girls' expectations because their families or their teachers did not expect them to prepare for a future different from marriage and motherhood. The good thing was that changes were taking place with regards to this trend (Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia, 1995). By the start of the 20th century, women were able to obtain undergraduate college degrees. In 1984, 49% of undergraduate degrees were by women, a sharp increase from just 19% during the onset of the century. Furthermore, more women became interested in taking graduate studies. This was further improved when, in the mid-1980s, women held 49% of masteral degrees and 33% of doctoral degrees. Moreover, women students in college comprised 53% in 1985 (Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia, 1995). Another area where women came as inferiors to men was at work. During the colonial times, women who earned a living were seamstresses or in charged of keeping boardinghouses. There were some women who worked men's jobs, such as doctors, preachers, writers, and lawyers, among others. At the onset of the 19th century, occupations allowed for women were either factory labor or domestic work. They were generally excluded from higher professions but were allowed to write and teach (Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia, 1995). Several changes took place in the following centuries. Career opportunities such as medical profession have undergone changed attitudes. Anyone could practice medicine, but obstetrics was generally a woman's domain. Unfortunately, the educational preparation needed for this profession increased, limiting some women to further pursue medical practice. On top of it, racial discrimination began against certain groups of women. For instance, the American Medical Association did not accept females. They were also barred from medical colleges for men. This changed by 1920s. During this period, a significant number of women attended certain leading medical schools. This was further strengthened when the American Medical Association accepted women members in 1915 (Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia, 1995). Women's Rights It is common knowledge among people that women did not have as much legal rights and other opportunities compared to men. Women were confined in homes, where their major roles were wives and mothers. They could not join in political or social matters, as these were the spheres of men. Women lacked many rights that in a sense, they were like slaves. Women have been fighting for their rights as early as the 19th century, spearheaded by evangelical groups and volunteer associations among middle women from class and upper class. They have strived to affect changes in the American society whose perspective on women was too limiting (Walter, 2001, p. 184). Rights that women can freely obtain indicates the â€Å"understanding of global well-being. † This issue is something that every country should resolve, and not only those ones where religion is the law (Shah, 2007). Rights that women should have equal access to include human rights, equality rights, and political rights, among others. The road to these rights was not a smooth one. Women were constantly in battle for equal footing with men. It took almost fifty years before the Equal Rights Amendment was passed to the states for ratification. Women from all races and nationalities united to support and push the ratification of ERA. Rallies, fundraising activities, marches and many other events were conducted to encourage supporters for the amendment. However, many politicians did not see the need to ratify the ERA for women. They argued that if women were allowed rights, it would destroy families or the women's credibility. However, these issues that were once debated on now became a part of the society (Eisenberg & Ruthsdotter, 1998). Voting rights have also been fought for by brave women. Starting in 1920, women were allowed to vote, although their other political roles were limited (Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia, 1995). However, this was a major change in a nation dominated by men who did not believe in allowing women to participate in political matters, including voting. But certain women, such as Stanton, believed that obtaining voting rights was a start to a greater role for women in the society (Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia, 1995). Reproductive rights, under basic human rights, were also fought for many years. These rights would allow women the right to determine how many children they wanted to have. Without these rights, their other rights would have no profound meaning. This was because when they were not granted reproductive rights, they would not be able to fully make decisions about other areas including education and work. History witnessed the significant decrease in birth rate during the 19th century as women became more educated (Lewis, 2009). Women's Struggles As women battled for their rights and for an equal place in the society, they were faced with opposition from all sides. They have struggled for equality, for voting rights, and for political power. They have struggled to have an identity in the American society. And they have struggled to be freed from the chains that kept them inferiors for many years. Although many changes took place and women now have more liberty compared to the past, women were still in struggle for equality. History has witnessed women's struggle against oppression, as commenced in 1857 in textile factories, to stop racial segregation. They have also demanded to be paid equally with that of their male co-workers. Furthermore, women struggled to push their rights through movements and marches. Many people were firmly opposed to this that some women who participated in these events were jailed or, in remote cases, tortured (TamilCanadian, 1999). The importance of a women's liberation struggle cannot be emphasized enough. Women should be given the freedom from oppression in any form, from discrimination and from their economic dependence on men. Although women have come a long way in their struggles, and now have many rights, there were still some women who faced oppression and in many forms. Sexual harassment is prevalent in some places, especially at work where women's jobs are considered inferior to that of men's. Furthermore, women faced challenges with regards to shared responsibilities between them and their working husbands. On top of these, there is still the segregation of jobs between sexes (TamilCanadian, 1999). In addition, an article in 1999 reported that women in jails were especially susceptible to oppression in the form of sexual abuse and slavery to male prisoners (TamilCanadian, 1999). The Amnesty International reported that women in jails around the world are always victims of human rights violations due to their gender and vulnerability. Women have been the victims of sexual violence, including torture and rape. Furthermore, many of these women were not given proper health care and were instead targeted for punishments and discrimination (Amnesty International, 1999). Even today, women's struggles are still prevalent in the society. Young women struggle for their own equality and democracy. It was claimed that young women have been the targets or victims in many instances. Equal pay for equal work was pushed ahead despite the trying times during the Bush administration. Young women have struggled for reproductive rights, welfare reinstatement, criminalization, violence against them, and better access to public education. In addition, further claims were made regarding the exploitation of young women by capitalists and the structures that they control. This was especially true among young women of color, who are more likely to be the subject of sharper racist edge (Wheeler, 2001). Furthermore, women have experienced being paid less compared to men doing the same job. They have also gone through the lack of job security in the retail/sales industry. Aside from this, women have to submit to restrictions on hours rendered for work. Also, many of these industries do not allow workers to organize. And the worst thing is that immigrant women fall prey to the most despicable working conditions. Between work and families, young women continue to struggle to attend to both. A 2000 census showed that more than 12 million families are led by single parent who also manage the household. Furthermore, 2. 4 million of these families are below the poverty line (Wheeler, 2001). Women's Rights Movement As women became more aware of the importance of obtaining their rights, the Women's Right Movement was put into action in 1848. No one thought that a small group of dedicated women could change the course of history to be able to achieve full rights in America. Women's fight for changes within the family life, employment, government, and education have been notable. These changes did not just happen overnight. Women of different races from different places all desired to affect changes by conducting meetings, nonviolent resistance, and public speaking (Eisenberg & Ruthsdotter, 1998). According to past historical accounts, the birth of the agitation for women's rights was brought about by Frances Wright, a Scotchwoman who visited the United States in 1820. She was popularly known as an intellect on matters regarding politics and social reform. She would live from one place to another, always encouraging both men and women to think differently on traditional beliefs including slavery and the degradation of women in the society. Eventually, Wright succeeded in her efforts, evidenced by literature written by various women. The articles that women wrote talked about the status of women. Furthermore, there were lectures conducted, although some women were bannished for doing so (Hecker, 2004, p. 81). These events have led women to question women's rights, especially among those who were against slavery. Further inquiry into the validity of slavery caused these women to investigate the enforced status of women in the society. Meeting were conducted to address these issues. However, the women, including Angelina and Sarah Gimke, often faced hostility in meetings where there were men. In fact, during a meeting of the Anti-Slavery Association in 1840, men did not take part in committees where there were women involved. This was despite women held a larger contribution to uphold the cause (Hecker, 2004, p. 81). These affairs reached London during the World's Anti-Slavery Convention. Some alti-slavery organizations sent women as their delegates. Unfortunately, the English members refused to allow these women to take part in the proceedings due in part to the opposition of the clergy. The latter believed that St. Paul did not permit women to teach. Thus, delegates Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, the first president of the Female Anti-Slavery Society of Philadelphia, decided to start a women's rights convention upon returning to the United States. The World's Anti-Slavery Convention caused a larger cause to exist (Hecker, 2004, p. 81). July 13, 1848 is the birth of the movement in New York during a tea party. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, a housewife and mother, along with four friends, was in attendance. During their conversation, the topic turned to the situation of women. Stanton made known of her discontent about the limitations enforced on women in the America's new democracy. Despite the American Revolution which was fought 70 years earlier, women still lacked freedom. Stanton believed that the society could benefit more if women were given active roles. This was something that Stanton's friends agreed with, and thus they carried out a large-scale program (Eisenberg & Ruthsdotter, 1998). Days after this conversation, they set a date and location for their first convention. It was held on July 19-20, 1848, at Seneca Falls, New York. Newspapers attributed the organization of the event to the â€Å"divorced wives, childless women, and sour old maids,† referring to Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, Mrs. McClintock and other brave women who attended to their domestic lives and to their children. This first convention attracted a large crowd which reached 300 (Hecker, 2004, p. 81). During the convention, the women presented and signed the Declaration of Sentiments and Declaration of Resolutions mainly based on Declaration of Independence. These include the objectives of the women's rights movement. After this convention, many others were held for the following years (Adams, 2003, pp. 7-8). As Stanton herself expected, newspapers and certain people backlashed them. This was because newspapers believed that the Declaration of Sentiments was shameless, most especially the demand for women to vote. They attacked women on all sides. Fuirthermore, the newspapers published the document, along with the signatures of women who supported it. As a result, many of the women from the Convention had doubts and even withdrew their signatures from the document. Despite being embarrassed, some women were steadfast in what they believed in. Fortunately, something happened which favored the women upon the publishing of the document. The negative articles that editors published became widespread that even the people from isolated towns were informed to the issues. As a result, many people became involved in the heated debate regarding the women's rights in the society (Eisenberg & Ruthsdotter, 1998). The push for women's rights was further supported by two factions of the movement in 1869. One was the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) and the other, the National Woman Suffrage Assocation (NWSA). AWSA was organized in Boston by Lucy Stone, a woman popular for advocating anti-slavery and for lobbying the women's rights. NWSA, on the other hand, was organized by Stanton and Susan B. Anthony. The organization aimed to change federal law and passionately opposed the 15th Amendment as it excluded provisions for women (Women in Congress, n. d. ).. The two factions could not unite because the supporters of AWSA believed that their rival was â€Å"racially divisive and organized†¦ to continue a national reform at the state level† (Women in Congress, n. d. ). Furthermore, NWSA did not include alternative arguments and strategies. The NWSA founders also ignored other women groups, including organizations ran by laborers, civic reformers and farmers (Buhle, M. J. , Buhle, P. , & Stanton, 2005, p. xix). With the delicate balance between these factions, the AWSA and the NWSA strived to maintain momentum. The latter attracted recruits from the public speaking activities of both Stanton and Anthony. AWSA, on the other hand, did not have the wide reach that the rival organization enjoyed, but it was better funded and larger. However, the factions were not able to attract broad support from women. They did not even encourage male politicians to allow women to vote (Women in Congress, n. d. ). Between the 1880s and the onset of 1890s, a surge of volunteerism swept the nation. Many of these volunteers came from middle-class women, most of whom were members of clubs and professional societies, supporters of progressive causes, and members of charity organizations. The surge of volunteerism was brought about by these women's desire to â€Å"expand their sphere of activities further outside the home. Thus, the suffrage movement was further strengthened, and both the AWSA and the NWSA gained momentum. Finally, the two factions united in 1890 as they took advantage of the â€Å"constituency† brought about by the event. AWSA and NWSA united and formed the National Americal Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA), led by Stanton and, later, by Anthony. The new organization drew support from various organizations ran by women, including the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), the National Consumer's League, and the Women's Trade Union League (Women in Congress, n. . ). The new organization aimed to gain votes in states and went through some challenges. Finally, in 1869, Wyoming became the first state to allow women full voting rights. Afterwards, Colorado, Utah, and Idaho followed suit. These were the only states which allowed women to vote. The period covering 1910 to 1914, the NAWSA furthered its efforts to encourage other states to do the same thing. Consequently, the stat es Washington, California, Kansas, Arizona, and Oregon extended voting rights to women. In 1913, the Illinois followed suit, and the state's future congresswoman, Ruth Hanna McCormick, helped advance the fight for suffrage. In 1914, Montana joined the states, mainly due to the efforts of its future Congresswoman, Jeannette Rankin (Women in Congress, n. d. ). Women's fight to obtain full rights like those of men's is not finished yet. There are still cases of oppression and violence against women. Women are still struggling to rise to be able to obtain a strong identity in the American society. The liberty and rights that women have today became impossible due to events in the past that put women in the frontline. The Women's Rights Movement have enabled women to obtain voting rights and, consequently, human rights and equality rights. The selfless efforts of several notable women opened the eyes of all women regarding their place in the society. In the past, the only place for women was the home. They lacked basic rights and were mainly inferior to their husbands or to men in general. However, times have changed. In most places, women now stand side by side and in equality with men. The efforts of women to push forward a better life full of opportunities for all women brough forth these fruits.

Current Trends in Business Communication

Technology advancements over the recent years have made communication possible in different ways. Communication in the business world today can range anywhere from e-mails, personal digital assistants, text messaging, instant messaging, and through the use of web-cams, just to name a few. These different communication tools allow employees to communicate both internally and externally in a timely and more efficient manner. The current trends in communication within the healthcare industry make it easier for health care professionals to perform their daily tasks, and provide patients with more quality care. The Role of Business Communication in My Workplace Communication is extremely important in my line of work as a nurse. Without good effective communication skills between the various healthcare professionals involved in a patients care and between the healthcare professionals and the patient, the quality of care would or could be grossly impacted. As a nurse, communication takes place in many different forms, whether it is through notes, e-mail, phone, Internet, software used by the facility, or face-to-face communication. Typical internal day-to-day communication activities in my job include checking my work list on the software application that the healthcare facilities use to communicate between the chains of healthcare facilities within the region. The work list may have orders from the doctor to perform certain tasks such as phoning in a prescription to the pharmacy or updating a medication list for a patient. Another type of internal communication that takes place in my day-to-day activities besides oral communication, software communication, and phone communication, is written communication through the use of text messaging. There are times when the doctor will be out of the office and unable to talk directly to a patient or myself and will instead send text messages to my cell phone. Text messaging is not necessarily a daily occurrence but is used regularly. External day-to-day communication that my job requires me to use may include verbal or oral communication with patients either by the use of phone or face-to-face. It is also common to send written material with the patients or to the patients at their home address. Communication with pharmaceutical representatives via e-mail is also common. There may be questions about medications for example, which are not emergent and completely acceptable to send via e-mail to the representative. Text messaging is not an acceptable means of external communication and is never used. The use of the Internet and software has a huge impact on my ability to perform daily activities in a timely manner. Without the ease of communicating electronically simple activities could take could take much more time to complete. Current software has made it easy to re-order prescriptions for patients by just looking up a patient and renewing past prescriptions and sending them to the specific pharmacy that they use. This makes it not only easier for the doctor and the nurse but also for the pharmacist. Also there are times when it is necessary to get ahold of the doctor who could be in a meeting through the use of text messages. This allows important questions to be answered right away instead waiting until the meeting is over. Trends within the Healthcare Industry. Technology has had a big impact in the healthcare industry. My workplace will be going paperless in September of this year. Doctors are preparing for this by making sure that all patient information listed in patient charts such as medication lists and diagnoses’ are put into the system. All internal communication between different facilities will be done through the use of software or by phone. No patient results will be sent through fax or through mail. According to LexisNexis, â€Å"Obama sees the investment in electronic records as a way to improve quality and lower costs. Different Message Types Resulting From Current Trends According to Articlesbase (n. d. ), â€Å"The different message types that result from these current trends are either personal or impersonal. † The different message types resulting from these current communication trends are in the form of e-mails, text messaging, various software, Internet communicatio n, face-to-face video conferencing, instant messaging, and social networking sites such as Twitter or Facebook. Conclusion The current trends in business communication have been greatly influenced by the advancements in technology. The Internet, cell phones, MP3 players, personal digital assistants, social networking sites, and video conferencing among others, has allowed business communication to take place in many forms and from all over the world with ease. These current trends have made it easier for healthcare professionals to communicate more efficiently internally and externally and allow day-to-day activities to get accomplished more quickly than in the past. References: Articlesbase.  (n.d.).  Business Communication: Business Trends and Message Types.  Retrieved from http://www.articlesbase.com/networking-articles/business-communication-business- -trends-and-message-types-4133734.html ASQ.  (n.d.).  Going Paperless Pays Off for Healthcare Industry .  Retrieved from http://asq.org/qualitynews/qnt/execute/displaySetup?newsID=5661

Corporate performance, abnormal profits and sectoral differences Essay

Corporate performance, abnormal profits and sectoral differences - Essay Example Whereas some people consider the quantity of firms assets as an indicator of its performance, economists use different approaches such the efficiency in which firm or industry utilize its resources to generate income. Firms operating in the same industry exhibit dissimilar performance while even firms operating under different industries have depicted similar performance trends (Rumelt, 1991, p.179). Therefore, it is not clear as to what exactly determines performance of the firms since some people thinks that directors of the company and the environmental conditions play a significant role in firm performance. One of the key determinants of firm’s performance is the level of resource endowment. Firms are endowed with different resources and this could result to improved performance of the company regardless of the industry in which it operates (Rosenzweig, 2007, p.11). Firms with large resource base enjoy economies of scale to due to large scale production. Therefore, those f irms are able to offer their products at a reduced price compared to their competitors who may be experiencing diseconomies of production. Furthermore such firms are able to use most efficient techniques in their operations as a result of intensive research and innovations. Another determinant of the performance of company is its market position. Firms which have differentiated products are able to enjoy significant market returns by influencing prices of the products as the market leaders. Customer loyalty to specific brand may result to some companies performing better than others in the same industry (Lecture 4, 2012). The market leaders usually set prices for the commodities while others just follow the decisions of the market leaders. Therefore, if firms are operating in an industry with differentiated products, then their performance will vary significantly depending on their position in the market in terms of market share. Some people use total assets as a measure of performa nce of the company hence, companies with vast resources are considered most successful. However, in Rumelt (1991, p.181) comparing economic profits of different firms operating in the same industry has shown that different firms with large resource base are not necessarily the best performing. Even firms with fewer resources have exhibited higher profit ratios to resources used. Economic profits in relation to resource used to generate the profit can better provide a comparison of performances of different firms across the industries (McGahan, and Porter, 1997, p.27). Regardless of the industry in the firm is operating, the level of their performances can be determined in relation to how much benefits can be obtained from the capital employed. The firm managers make probabilistic decisions. For example, the production activities are all based on the prediction of the market. However, in reality things changes and what was anticipated may never come to pass. Therefore, the performanc e of firm will depend on extent in which the predicted events match with real occurrences (Lecture 4, 2012). Sometimes, the managers have no control over the events that occur hence they influence much the performance of the firm. According to Hawawini, Subramanian and Verdin (2001, p.30), the Industry in which a firm belongs affects the overall performance of a company. Some industries are much specialized such as pharmaceuticals and engineering firms. Other

English Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

English - Research Paper Example The world is full of personalities who have been made stars just because of their involvement in soccer. Their every aspect of life has been defined by this game loved by many. The scope of beneficiaries of the game is wide and range from the footballers themselves to coaches who teach the youth how to play soccer. Like in Europe, soccer has a considerable share of the European economy and for this it forms an important part of the economy. It supports other industries and hence treated with a lot of seriousness it accords. To other parts of the world, soccer is used for similar reasons among others. This research is explores how soccer can be used in shaping the live of youth. It digs deep into the possibilities of using soccer game to help youth dream big, be disciplined and have a clear focus about their future. In addition, it evaluates how soccer can be used to instill teamwork and self-reliance besides assessing how popular soccer is among the youth, the age commonly attracted to soccer and finally the risks associated with the act of playing soccer. This is done in a very systematic way in which several resources are used to get the fine details. All time professionals’ life in the game, like David Beckham, has been studied so that a fine grip of the reality at the ground is realized. The of talks of renowned football coaches is also studied so as to unearth the truths which help these coaches instill discipline in these young players. Adolescent is quite challenging among many youth and hence means and ways to curb the effects of troubled adolescents through soccer are studied closely to yield reliable information for governments and other concerned bodies to take action. Soccer and Life skills In life, failure to have discipline in any life undertaking is failure already. David Beckham acknowledges that for one to succeed in football, he has to be disciplined. Football does not request for discipline, but instead it demands for it. You have to m ake a choice; either to be disciplined and learn football or to forget about soccer. Discipline in soccer is a wide aspect. Plainly, it can be stated that discipline is doing what is right all the time for the right purpose and place. When it is time to eat, go and eat. When it is time to play, you just have to go and play. Nevertheless, in soccer, discipline calls for more than just this. A player’s rise to stardom has to establish a very strong foundation of discipline. Respect is of great importance when it comes to adding to discipline. Soccer is a game which entails a lot of stakeholders. There are the players who are teammates, the coach, the team doctors, management team fans, etc. A good relationship between you and all these members of a team depends mostly with the respect which exists in between. Everybody yearns to relate well with the people around them and for this is easily achievable through the discipline of respecting others. It begins with acknowledgement a nd dip conviction that everybody in the team is important. This conviction yields respect which in turn stabilizes discipline. When practiced over and over, it becomes habitual. Respect being a 2-way traffic, you will be respected back by those whom you respect. When playing the game, you are not alone in the field. Youth react very quickly to any happening; either good or bad. With proper respect induction which comes with football training, it is

Discuss How Benedict's Work Developed Boas Vision of Anthropology And Essay

Discuss How Benedict's Work Developed Boas Vision of Anthropology And Whether It Also Represented a New Direction In American Anthropology - Essay Example This anthropological method is still considered to be highly effective today, as it reduces bias in analysis (Young, 2005). The idea of cultural relativism is also much championed in the work of Boas. Like Benedict after him, Boas held the belief that each cultural system only has meaning when studied as a whole, apart from other cultural systems. The moral compass of that particular culture should not be judged against our own moral compass, because they have to be seen relatively (Herskovits, 1973). Additionally, both Boas and Benedict understood that culture and cultural systems change over time, which means that there is an element of historical relativism found in both their works (Herskovits, 1973). This means that an anthropologist should look at a culture as an entity in both time and space to fully understand the rituals and symbols found within it (Herskovits, 1973). It is interesting to see how Benedict took these original ideas about cultural anthropology from Boas and de veloped them with her own fieldwork and evidence. For example, some of Benedict’s early fieldwork was a continuation of Boas’, working with the Kwakiutl Native American group. Benedict began gathering evidence that, whilst the customs of the Kwakiutl may seem strange, they are intelligible when considered as a part of the whole. This thought was followed on with her own fieldwork on the Pueblo group, found in New Mexico. Again, many of the customs and symbols found in Pueblo culture may seem alien to those reading â€Å"Patterns of Culture†, but Benedict (like Boas before her) encouraged the reader to think outside of their own culture to aid... This paper approves that the cultural relativism which was so promoted by Boas and developed by Benedict has come to be a cornerstone of most academic anthropology. Many academic textbooks promote the idea that a degree of neutrality is needed for true anthropological research. It is easy to assume that all cultures share the same moral and ethical values as our own, but many do not. Many make the mistake of assuming that other cultures are somehow ‘wrong’ for not adhering to ‘our’ values, which ruins empirical fieldwork. In this sense, Boas and Benedict had a huge impact on American anthropology and how it has developed into the scientific field that it is today. Thisreport makes a conclusion that Benedict built on these strong foundations to develop her idea of cultural identity and national personalities, including some of Boas’ fieldwork in her own research. Overall, the work of Boas and Benedict have been highly influential in the field, having been incorporated into the work of important anthropologists such as Margaret Mead. Particularly important are the emphasis that Boas put onto cultural relativism, suggesting that anthropologists need to be careful when examining other cultures to take the culture as a whole without judgement using personal morals and ethics. Additionally, Boas was highly critical of racism within the field, something which is generally championed by anthropologists working in the field today.

Performance management in action Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Performance management in action - Essay Example Nampak plastics are a South African owned company which is a strong performer in its industry and is strategically located to supply the entire United Kingdom. It has eight manufacturing sites from Glasgow to Gloucestershire. It was noticed that the morale was very low in organisation and people were also treated badly. Few employees were seen running around the organisation to do everything and the rest employees were seen to sit around watching. The culture of the organisation affected its customers. In fact, Nampak was found as the worst supplier to its customers. Customer’s complaints were also reaching at large numbers. So, it was decided by the organisation to develop a legacy on the engagement and involvement of employees from the bottom of organisation to up. Eric Collins, the managing director of Nampak Plastics, conducted a meaningful survey of employee satisfaction in the company. In the feedback, it was found that around 80 percent of staggering employees do not pr efer Nampak as a place to work with family and friends as they thought that everything was wrong. To make its improvement, certain key initiatives were taken. Initially, Collins took the attempt to meet with customers to hear what is going well in the organisation and what is going badly. In a session with employees, an incredible dissatisfaction was seen from the shop floor. Large number of blames was levelled towards Eric. Later on, Wright-Smith was appointed as the head of HR. The first action taken by her was the ban of word â€Å"engagement†.â€Å"engagement† as she opined that people could not be engaged by telling them to be engaged. Rather, the need of the hour is to run focus groups by asking people at various levels of organisation and at each site regarding what could make Nampak a better working place. However, the feedback raised was not so good and it gave rise to the three key themes. The first issue was poor communication about the business as people co uld not understand what was going on and they did not feel involved. Secondly, the training and development was poor as the employees could not feel that they hold a career there and had any opportunities of development. Lastly, they did not get any feedback on their performance as their managers did not make any communication with them. Focus on front line managers It was decide to implement a system of company-wide performance management. It was asked to the group of employees regarding what they wanted. They answered that they wanted not just objectives but personal development. So, the company provided training to all the managers, focussing that it is the quality of conversation that counts a lot, not just a proper filling of form.

Critical Analysis 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Critical Analysis 1 - Essay Example Thesis Statement: The purpose of this paper is to prove that Puritan beliefs and lifestyle were necessary for their survival in the new land of America. Using the works of Anne Bradstreet and William Bradford, the reasons why the Puritans fled their homes, the challenges they faced in the New World, and their goals will be investigated. William Bradford believed that God wanted the Pilgrims to establish a new life in the new land, by building a New Jerusalem. Here they would worship freely, without fear, would establish the rule of God’s laws, and would finally be relieved from the tyranny and persecution that had shadowed their entire lives in Europe (Schmidt 10). During their first year in Plymouth Colony, the Pilgrims faced several hardships including diseases, severely cold winter, and the occurrence of daily deaths. However, many of the colonists survived, mainly due to the leadership shown by William Bradford. They hunted wild game, fished, grew grain and corn, and built a settlement; and the following year celebrated the first Thanksgiving (Schmidt 107-108). Along with a group of other young men, Bradford provided excellent leadership for the progress of Plymouth Colony, but their work did not include that of the Church (Doherty 90). The separation of Church and state that is an important element of the American system of democracy, was initiated in this system that was central to the colony’s government. However, the mission of the Puritans was to spread God’s word â€Å"to both Christians and heathens, to comfort the afflicted, and to offer guidance to those with spiritual questions† (Williams: 52). Besides Bradford’s showed Godliness as well as tact in befriending the native Americans. When the settlement started to thrive, Bradford established profitable trade with the local natives. By the next winter, the Pilgrims had regained their health and strength, and had adequate provisions for all including the supply of wild

Balance Training in Recreational Gym Users Essay

Balance Training in Recreational Gym Users - Essay Example Questionnaires are used to provide information on demographics and participation in balance activity within a gym setting. Questionnaires are a cost-effective form of the survey, easy to analyze, non-confrontational and a familiar format for participants to complete. They are a good way of obtaining data with reduced bias (Walonick 2004). They have been used previously to ascertain balance training participation and behavior both as an isolated activity (McInnes 2004) and also as part of the multi-modal regimen (Resnick 2000). They are also effective for the measurement of variables such as motivation, barriers to, and promoters of balance exercise (Kline 2000). The convenience of the setting of the gym and the availability of participants already predisposed to regular exercise informs the choice of venue at which to conduct the survey. Biases such as difficulty with transport or aversion to exercise, generally, are reduced by the said choice of venue. In the absence of sampling frames and population lists, 120 recreational gym users were approached in an effort to provide a representative sample of gym users. All participants who took part in the survey were gym users, male and female, aged 20-80 years. Participants are surveyed from this age range as literature has shown the benefits in reduction of injury rates and falls from balance exercise in the young and elderly ( see for example Handall 2001, Hong 2000). Each respondent had been a member of the gym for more than 12 months and reported attendance of once a week or more. The absence of population lists and sampling frames means it is not possible to determine whether the gender difference (or similarities) is a reflection of the gym user population. A minimum of 85 questionnaires was completed to produce a power calculation of greater than 80% in relation to the aims of the study, as specified by Altman,1991.  

Internationalization in general and the internationalization of Essay

Internationalization in general and the internationalization of Universities in particular - Essay Example Both will continue, with firms increasing globalisation by responding to changing macro and operational markets to increase both efficiency and profits. The primary globalisation drivers are the loss of barriers between nations, allowing new trading relationships to develop and change driven by technology. During the early stages of globalisation, companies actively made the decision to globalise, and did so in small steps. It is now assumed that all firms will globalise unless they have a good reason not to (Yip, 2001, p.358). One of the main reasons for globalising, is the increasing rate of change in technology, especially the Internet. Even the smallest organisation can trade globally as long as they have an appropriate web site and can set up the appropriate supply chain for delivery to the customers. Yip also identified three main forms of multinational companies (MNCs): internationalist, federalist and global maximiser (ibid, pp.359-362). The federalist is the traditional MNC. The global maximiser uses pure strategy when formulating growth plans. For an SME deciding to internationalise, the internationalist strategy appears most suitable. An internationalist strategy is used by a company with a secure position within its home market/nation. Foreign activities are opportunistic rather than strategically planned and intended. The test, according to Yip, is whether or not the company could survive purely on the revenue and profit streams of the domestic business (ibid, p.359). This would also be an appropriate approach for a university seeking to expand overseas for the first time, although the use of the Internet and well-constructed, culturally appropriate learning materials with well-trained teaching staff might negate the need to physically expand overseas at all. Kaarna (2010) makes use of the internationalisation framework when considering whether â€Å"different theories for explaining the accelerated internationalisation† (p.556). He found, a s part of his initial investigations, other researchers’ work, undertaken in 2000-2003, identified two ways that enterprises attained international status by either starting as a global company or using multiple market entry modes simultaneously (ibid). Surprisingly he also identifies a study that found the use of theoretical models in peer-reviewed articles was evident in only 18% of them (32 out of 179 papers) (ibid, p.557). His research revealed that, despite its age, the internationalisation framework still held, some 34 years since its identification by Johnson and Vahlne in 1977 (ibid, p.560), although it is qualified by indicating that some of the underlying assumptions had changed, with new ideas being added based on other theories and models which, Kaarna claims, have enhanced â€Å"the understanding of [the] accelerated internationalisation phenomenon† (ibid). Other aspects affecting the increasing extent and pace of globalisation, are increasing amounts of i nvestment from companies seeking to set up operations in different countries. Restrictions are being reduced and/or removed to facilitate this, increasing the abilities of nations to import and export required goods and services (Hill, 2011, pp.12-13). Trade barriers have also been progressively reduced, although there are often threats of imposing tariffs and quotas when nations disagree with policies and approaches of other nations, resulting

The world economy is in turmoil. Supermarkets are no different, as we Essay - 1

The world economy is in turmoil. Supermarkets are no different, as we discovered during the year - Essay Example The performance of supermarkets within the global financial crisis is the main issue addressed in this study. The examination of the relevant data has led to the assumption that not all firms operating in the supermarket sector had been adversely affected by the world recession; in fact, where appropriate strategic plans have been applied the performance of supermarkets has been increased. In any case, the financial crisis worldwide has created a strong turmoil the end of which cannot be identified – at least for the moment. Under these conditions, the performance of supermarkets worldwide has been declined – even if exceptions of good performance have been also noted in the international market. In Britain, the firms operating in the supermarket sector have suffered severe losses – also in this country there have been supermarkets that managed to handle the crisis and increase their performance, like in the case of Simsbury’s. In this paper, the effects o f the world recession on the supermarket sector are analyzed by referring to a specific firm: Waitrose. The specific firm failed in identifying and handling the risks related with the global recession and the changes in the customer preferences. This failure led to the limitation of the firm’s profits without signs for a fast recovery. The response of the specific firm to the challenges of the world recession has been proved inadequate – if taking into consideration the strategic plans used by its competitors. The examination of the British market – and especially of the supermarket sector – leads to an interesting findings: not all supermarkets in Britain have suffered loss of their profits because of the global financial crisis; the limitation of profitability of the firms operating in this sector has been rather the result of poor strategic management. The above assumption is verified using the principle of Breakeven; the use of this principle for

Globalization and genocide Essay Example for Free

Globalization and genocide Essay The twentieth century has seen a lot of inventions come into being, from the invention of the engine, to the manufacturing of airplanes. Then there came the aspect of globalization. The world that was so large started shrinking on a daily basis until finally, borders seemed to have evaporated into thin air even between continents. Today, a person may be in London in the morning and in the evening he is in Washington. Communication has also been made easier and more efficient in such a way that you can talk to a person who is thousands of miles away, as if you are talking to the person next door. The world has become a small community. Successes and failures However, there are shortcomings that have come with globalization. Lechner and Boli (2004) in their book The Globalization Reader argues that while there has been shortcoming of globalization because of the strain it has exerted on the environment thereby degrading it. While the countries all over the world have been working to see their economies develop, this has been at the expense of the environment. One of these causes of environmental degradation according to their argument is the destroying of the natural environment. Large tracts of forest covered land are destroyed each year leaving the land bare and in a few years no longer unproductive. This, they argue, is not the only cause of environmental degradation. Another cause is the releasing of harmful chemicals into the environment. Example is the Chernobyl nuclear accident. After this accident, there were many nuclear substances that were released into the environment and over the years have caused cancer. Fossil fuels have also contributed greatly to the destruction of the environment. While these have provided fuel for industries, carbon dioxide emissions has been on the rise thereby causing global warming. Are there ways and means to reverse the current trends of environmental degradation in order to make secure our future? However, despite all this destruction, there has been an effort to try and slow down if not to completely stop the rate at which the environment is destroyed. Whereas the governments have not been keen enough to conserve the environment, Lechner and Boli (2004) argue that there are environmentalists who have rallied for conservation of this precious environment. In 1992, Rio de Janeiro Declaration on Environment and Development proposed that, for a meaningful development to be achieved, environment conservation must come first. There are also who have argued that for environment to be conserved especially in poor nations, the rich nations must cancel their debts since the small governments spend all their earnings paying debts at the expense of local development, thus forcing it people to solely rely on an already deprived land hence furthering the effects of environmental destruction. Others have used all their minerals on debts without caring much on the effects this has on the environment. There are also organizations that were formed to champion for the protection of the environment. Their call is on the political class to make their priorities right by spending less on military and more on environment protection, not just for this generation but also for future generation. Issues of poverty have been cited as the biggest enemy to the protection of the environment. An example is of Mau forest in Kenya. While this forest has been the water catchments and the source of many rivers in Kenya, it faces the danger of being destroyed because of human activities. At the moment, part of the forest has been inhabited by people who are poor and therefore not willing to move out. The government of Kenya on the other hand is also unable to settle these people elsewhere since it doesn’t have resources. The neighboring nations namely Uganda and Tanzania face the same plight as Kenya and cannot help the Kenyan government yet these rivers drain in Lake Victoria which is shared among them. These activities that have affected a nation environmentally do not affect just one person. The Mau forest in Kenya is a good example. If the future of Mau forest is not solved, eventually, Egypt which doesn’t even border Kenya will be affected since it depends on water from Lake Victoria through river Nile for its irrigation. Human beings faced the danger of extinction on a daily, more so from environmental degradation. Nevertheless, it is possible to have a better world. A world where pollution is controlled and excellent environment that is not contaminated is the ultimate choice for everyone. There have been meetings called by different people all over the world to fight for the right to live in a non polluted environment. An urge to have those that are considered the minority in the society to participate in the process of policy making has been on the rise. Is it possible, when we are united together as a people, to fight for our environment? Genocide The effects of globalization have not been felt in the environmental circle alone. Social life in many places throughout the world has been altered because of globalization. According to Gellately and Kiernan (2003) examines the atrocities that have been committed against humanity, some among them committed by the ‘civilized’ as they championed for globalization. For example, there were mass murders that were committed at Guatemala, sponsored by the US government. In this revolution, the Mayan community was massacred and the world kept mum. Even when as a commission to investigate these events was setup, their report did not reveal the motives behind these killings, and the people behind it. The Mayan people are not the only ones that have been affected. Yugoslavia in 1991 faced genocide whereby a minority group was targeted and massacred. Politics and cruelty has been the order of the day. Politicians have been known to use people to get into position and then turn against these people. These acts of brutality are yet to end. Societies throughout the world still experience mass murders in their midst. Technology, which is supposed to ease the way life, is now being used against people. US is not spared either. September 11 attacks proved that people are willing to go all the way to destroy others. While we may toy around with the idea of whether to reevaluate our stand towards globalization or not, we must always remember that a time is coming when we shall not enjoy the relaxation our beaches offer us as we do today. At that time, there will be no trees for our wildlife and therefore no rain. For countries in Sub Saharan Africa, this will mean that there will be no food since these communities have always depended on rain for their agricultural activities. Just as a reminder, that time is already at hand. We are already seeing the effects of globalization on our environment. Yet, the question we ask ourselves is, ‘Are we ready to shove the idea of globalization beneath the carpet and look for a new alternative? ’ Some of the greatest crimes against humanity were committed at a time when we considered the world to be on a highway to becoming one community with no barriers. That was in the mid 1990s, a genocide that left many dead with many other maimed. Yet, the global community never spoke a single word until it was all over. According to Gellately and Kiernan (2003), these acts of brutality have often been sparked by oppression through the years by those who are powerful. After many years of oppression, those who have been oppressed pour their anger on those who are helpless and vulnerable and therefore cannot defend themselves. In the end, we witness the kind of crimes like those that happened in Rwanda (p 375). We cannot also ignore the fact that technological advances in warfare have also been the cause of genocides in our communities. Cases in point are the Nazis in Germany; the use of poisonous gases against the Kurds in Iraq; the September 11 attacks on US soil. These have all employed the use of technology to perpetrate crime. Thus, the globalization that was supposed to bring us together has also been the source of death and segregation in our communities. Are we as human being going through a transition that is changing us for the worse i. e. turning us against each other? Is globalization therefore the cause of genocide or a solution to eradicating genocide in the current world? Are we our own enemies? References Lechner, F Boli, J. (2004). The globalization reader. New Jersey, USA: Published by Wiley-Blackwell. Gellately, R. Kiernan, B. (2003). The specter of genocide: mass murder in historical perspective. Cambridge, UK: Published by Cambridge University Press.

The Theory Of The Doctrine Of Affections

The Theory Of The Doctrine Of Affections We will doubt, first, whether all of the things that have fallen under our senses, or which we have ever imagined, any one (of them) really exist; in the first place, because, we know by experience that the senses sometimes err and it would be imprudent to trust too much to what has once deceived us; secondly, in dreamsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦we imagine numerable objects which have no existence.  [1]   In this quote Descartes explains that senses are unreliable and that we cannot trust them for they have been proven to lie. It is interesting, then, that music is such a popular art form, for it depends heavily, and almost solely upon listening. While a full knowledge and understanding of music cannot be discovered from a purely auditory approach, simply listening to music has the ability to subconsciously entice emotions within an audience. This link between mood and sonority grew from ancient Greek philosophy and extended well beyond the eighteenth-century, but came to its height during the Baroque Period (ca. 1570-1780). The Baroque idea called the Doctrine of Affections held this idea to be true; it was the belief which held that by making use of the appropriate and established musical methods of the time, the composer could create a piece of music which was able to produce a particular and involuntary emotional response within the audience. It was a compilation of thoughts and m usical techniques from many composers and philosophers from age of the Enlightenment, most prevalently Renà ¨ Descartes.  [2]  As previously stated, some of the principles of this concept date back centuries, to philosophers such as Aristotle, who showed that orators employed the rhetorical means to control and direct the emotions of their audiences.  [3]   However, musically the idea came to its height during the age of the Enlightenment and can be seen throughout Baroque music in instrumental pieces of great composers such as Bach and Rameau, but is especially profound in opera, due to the greater emotional stimulation caused by music and text simultaneously portrayed. The Theory of the Doctrine of Affections originated with Descartes. Descartes believed that music was centered on rationalized truth; he held that the ideas of science may not be favorable to the arts, but the understanding of science enhanced the arts possibilities. This idea relates back to his rationalist idea which was represented in the Doctrine of Affections; that knowledge is found in concepts, principles, and laws, and not just in experiences or unrefined sensations.  [4]   As such, by using scientific inquiry to understanding the biological workings of the body it was possible to attain accuracy and specific truth upon these systems which could then be used within music to rouse human emotions, and thus could increase the potential of the arts. But, simultaneously: By using empirical observationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦they may come to accept some system which has logical consistency, but little relevance to the world in which we live.  [5]   Using the ideas of scientific observation in this way could greatly inhibit the very purpose of musical expression. The very groundwork of the Doctrine of Affections can be summed up by a rationalist idea, which states that when human emotions and thoughts were suitably written within the poetry or libretto for a particular composition, the texts could then be enhanced with a proper musical line, in an attempt to bring intellectual abstractions into the realm of the passionate concrete.  [6]   The Passions, according to Descarte: Include love, sadness, hatred, desire, wonder, joy, and sorrow. Passions are predicated by actions of the soul and set into motion by contents of the blood stream. The soul is excited by the moving passions which direct a mans will. It is on the passions, good or evil, that life depends. Passions have an effect on the psyche, and uses the idea believed by philosophers and Biologists, that passions are found in the spirits contained in the blood stream.  [7]   Each passion is associated with a specific physiological symptom. For example, the breath might accelerate and the heart beat may quicken. Descartes believed that it was possible to predict the external emotions that would result from the various passions the music intended to arouse. His influence over composition was remarkable.  [8]  Writers that followed, such as Johann Mattheson, described the composers thought process towards composition as such: that the music does not express the emotion of the composer to be, for example, sad and anguished, but rather the composers attempt to create a work of art which would sadden the listeners. Also, he says that this emotional power which the music has over the listener is not necessarily outwardly shown, but the emotional effect is personal and comes from the listeners individual experiences.  [9]   Descartes Compendium Musicae and his Traite des passionse lame (catalogues or compilations of the basic human passions  [10]  ), which became popular during the Baroque period became widely studied. These publications were two of many of the age, but were the first to give musicians tangible and practical directions for appropriate and affective use of intervals, for example, happy emotions tended to be represented with wide intervals, while sadness was represented with narrower intervals.  [11]  As aforementioned, the emotional reaction to the effect which music has upon the body, used in attempt to direct the emotions of the audience, was particularly profound when used in vocal music, especially opera, due to the text to music relationship which enhanced the expressive development. This was a concept originally derived from Greek and Latin Doctrines on rhetoric and oratory  [12]   and also expressed within the philosophy of the Doctrine of Affections. In each individua l piece, the composer would try to arouse a particular type of emotion within the audience, for example, hate, anger, jealousy, or rage, but would only use one emotion at a time. He would use particular musical devises to entice emotion within the listener, which would parallel the ability of text to do the same.  [13]  One of the most famous of Baroque composers was Handel. He believed that: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦plainness and simplicity had the greatest effect upon human emotion as he endeavored to write for the voice, more in the natural tones of the human affections and passions.  [14]  ( A study in Handelian Thought 55) As such, Handel composed greatly within the concepts of the Doctrine of Affections, in attempt to provoke the passions and incite human emotions. Also, conductor Nicholas McGegan believes that Handel had great insight into underlining human emotion and his characters are absolutely human.  [15]   As previously stated, Handel composed within the realm of the philosophy of the Doctrine of Affections. As such, his arias and oratorios are written in such a way to combine the emotional context of the libretto with a musical line which would unconsciously bring about predetermined emotions within the audience. Three types of arias found during the Baroque period were those that depicted rage, happiness, and lost love. According to Johann Mattheson rage is much better at using all forms of musical inventions than more pleasant passions. However, it is not adequate enough to simply use loud dynamics and quick rhythms, as this violent quality has its own personality and requires forceful expression without losing sight of the beauty of the musical line.  [16]  The main devices used during a rage aria can be seen in an expanded theory of intervals explained by the Philosopher and Composer Rameau. Assuming that the basic human qualities of rage include anger, violence, sorrow, grave ness, harshness, and aggression, Rameau would conclude that a rage aria would include: whole and half steps, used to represent anger or sadness due to the contraction of the body; minor thirds, descending fourths, augmented fourths, minor sixths, and major sevenths. Also rage or anger would be seen in a fast tempo and most likely a minor key.  [17]  The rage arias of Handel directly follow this theme. Handels famous aria Empio, dirà ², tu sei from his opera Giulio Cesare is a classic example of a Rage aria. The first importance of this piece in terms of the Doctrine of Affections is the text: Empio, dirà ², tu sei: Togliti agli occhi miei Sie tutto crudeltà ¡ Non à ¨ di re quell cor, Che donasi al rigor Che in sen non ha pieta (I say you are a villain, Remove yourself from my sight, You are cruelty itself. This is not the heart of a king That abandons itself to such harshness, That contains no pity.) This is Giulio Cesares furious Act 1 aria in which he chastises the Egyptian general, Achilla, who has just returned to him the detached head of the Pompeo, the noble Roman general. This aria expresses Ceasars rage, and as such, Handel wrote it in c minor and in the tempo Allegro. The aria also includes many rushing scales, arpeggios, and uneven figures. From the very first opening line, the orchestral overture creates uneasiness and dread in the listener by use of running scales, large leaps, and awkward intervals (m1- 9); this agitation is affirmed by a very strong vocal entrance by the castrato, Giulio Cesare, which begins with a descending scaler line and is followed by larger leaps (m.11). . Throughout, the vocal line can be described as extremely intense- containing extensive coloratura with rushing scales (m14-16; m24-25; 32-34), arpeggios, and drastic interval changes would create an understanding of rage even in a listener who did not understand the words, for example, when Cesare says Sie tutto crudeltà ¡ (You are cruelty itself), the vocal line implements jumping intervals as well as a brief chromatic passage (m35-37) Also, throughout the piece the orchestra is particularly restless, and includes running passages, large leaps, arpeggiated figures, which also create an uneasiness. All of these factors contribute to quickening the heartbeat of the listener, providing them with an emotional relation and understanding of Giulio Cesare, just as if they, themselves were the raging party. The understanding of the text along with the extreme musical line and accompaniment creates an even more vivid picture of Cesares intense anger and rage and pulls the listener even further into the emotion, raising the blood pressure further and thus, physiologically causing the raging and uneasy emotion within the listener. Among the passions was also the emotion of joy. Mattheson held that: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦joy was an expansion of our soul, and thus it follows that reasonably and naturally that [one] could best express this affect by large and expanded intervals.  [18]   According to Rameau joyous music was also represented by great intervals, but additionally was shown with Major key and fast tempo.  [19]  The Air Oh! Had I Jubals lyre from the Oratorio Joshua by Handel implements these philosophies within the vocal line and orchestral accompaniment. Oh, had I Jubals lyre, Or Miriams tuneful voice! To sounds like his I would aspire, In songs like hers rejoice. My humble strains but faintly show, How much to Heavn and thee I owe. This is one of Handels later works, and it is based upon the biblical stories of Joshua. Essentially, Moses and the Israelites, after being freed from Egypt are told by God that they must maintain their faith to him for forty years in the wilderness before being allowed into the promise land, they do not obey him and send in spies to check out the land after two years. Long story short, Joshua and Caleb, of the younger generation maintain their faith within God and are thus allowed to enter the Promise land, while the disbelievers perished in the desert. In the bible, Jubal is quoted as being the ancestor of all who handle lyre and pipe  [20]  and Miriam is the sister of Moses and Aaron who was believed to have been a prophet. This is a simple song of happiness and praise sung by Achsah, the daughter or Caleb. Firstly, the piece is written in A major and in the tempo Allegro. From the opening of the piece, large and sonorous intervals and chords are heard and a feeling of ease an d happiness is apparent. When the soprano, Achsah enters, her line outlines an A major chord (m 10-11) and continues to move within a beautiful major key area. Although in some parts of the piece there are running passages (m21-24; m41-44; m 46-47) there continues to be large intervals and major chords throughout the accompaniment below. This stability below the quickly moving and florid passages allows the emotion of joy and happiness to be maintained throughout the piece. The piece begins and ends in a major key and throughout it implements large intervals and a consonant tone. These foundations musically create a joyous emotion within the audience because they entice openness within the body physiologically; the listeners emotional reaction, therefore directly parallels the sonority of the musical line and accompaniment. Another of the passions outlined by Descartes included love. Within opera, a common theme of unrequited or lost love is prevalent. This absence of love, which is sought by a character, brings about an emotion which is a combination of sadness and hope, and abstractly creates love. On sadness Mattheson states: Sadness is a contraction of the subtle parts of out bodyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦it is easy to see that the small and smallest intervals are most suitable for this passion.  [21]   To create the feeling of lost love, this emotion is combined with the passion for hope. In regards to this emotion Mattheson explains: Hope is a pleasant and soothing thing: it consists of a joyful longing which fills the spirit with certain courage. Hence, this effect demands the loveliest use of voice and the sweetest combination of sounds in the world, for which courageous longing serves as a spur as it were; yet so that even joy is only moderate, courage nevertheless enlivens and animates everything, which yields the best combination and uniting of sounds in composition.  [22]   This combination of the passions of sadness and hope can be used to understand the emotion of love. Mattheson shows this: Love is in fact essentially a diffusion of the spirits.  [23]   Love is therefore a diffusion or combination of joy or hope (expansion) and sadness (contraction), depending upon the type of love which is occurring. For example new and young love would be represented in a more joyous way, with larger and more expansive intervals musically. However, lost or unrequited love would be represented to attract sadness or small intervals, but also to entice hope, by using larger and more expansive intervals which are pleasant and soothing, because the character continues maintains some hope that love will eventually result from the sadness and loss, thus musically drawing the listeners into their melancholy but optimistic emotion. The philosophies of the Doctrine of Affections can again be seen in the aria O Sleep, why dost thou leave me? from the opera Semele by Handel. O sleep, O sleep, why dost thou leave me? Why doust thou leave me? Why thy visionary joys remove? O sleep, O sleep, O sleep again deceive me, O sleep again devieve me, To my arms restore my wandring love, My wandring love, Restore my wandring love, Again deceive me, O sleep, To my arms, restore my wandring love. The plot line of the opera is essentially thus: Semele is in love with Jupiter, but is about to Marry a man called Cadmus at the temple of Juno. Before the ceremony, however, Semele is snatched from the temple and taken to the heavens where Jupiter builds her a grand palace. Juno is angered by this and asks the god of sleep, Somnus, to help her in her revenge. In this aria Semele has been deprived of sleep, and thus, deprived of her dreams of her lover who cannot be with her. The piece is written in a major key, but in the tempo largo. This, from the first chord of the piano, shows the parallel between happiness and sadness that are present during lost love, the emotion of hope can be seen in the large interval jumps in the left hand of the piano accompaniment (m1-4) Semeles first phrase is very quiet, slow and repetitive; it uses a beautiful scalar line of second intervals to show her anguish for the loss of her lover within dreams. Underneath her beautiful line is a similarly runni ng pattern within the piano, which is characterized with some leaps to bring about a slight feeling of hope and happiness (m 8 in both hands; m 9 in both hands; m11-end in the arpegiated left hand) The sadness comes to a height on the second page when there is a long running passage upon the word wandring, (m 17-18), but hope is seen in the ending of the piece with the interval leaps upon the word restore, coming to the climatic and beautifully quiet G sharp, before desending again into sadness (m24-25).

Report On Military Applications Of Gnss Information Technology Essay

Report On Military Applications Of Gnss Information Technology Essay Recent years have witnessed an increasingly use of GNSS technologies in diverse areas of human endeavours. Governments, organisations, individuals etc. are beginning to rely upon GNSS technology in finding solutions to problems in different fields of life (Spirent, 2002: 17). One obvious area where GNSS technology has been deployed successfully since the launching of satellite navigation is in military applications. Military applications of GNSS date back in 1978 when the first Global Positioning System was launched by US Department of Defence. Since then, many GNSS and associated navigation systems are being used in military mission fields. This report examines past and present military applications of GNSS; it also attempts to look into future of military applications in the context of emerging trends and developments in GNSS world. 1.2 Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) is generic term encompassing all satellite navigation systems that allows users to determine their locations by observing radio signals transmitted by GNSS satellites. First among them is the US Navigation by Satellite Ranging and Timing (NAVSTAR) Global Positioning System (GPS). Russian Global Navigation Satellites System (GLONASS) is the second generation of GNSS, conceived also as a military system.. The next generation of GNSS is the European Unions Galileo which is expected to be in full operation by early 2014. GNSS market is poised for revolution with the full deployment of Galileo constellation of satellites. Other Regional GNSS include Beidou operated by China, although through its Compass, China has planned to launch satellite navigation system with global coverage. Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) is another GNSS in the development. Uncertainty still trail IRNSS project since India entered into partnership with Russian GLONASS. QZSS is another regional navigation system operated by Japan. It is developed to supplement GPS signals in Japan and neighbouring areas. Besides these, there are other regional GNSS space-based augmentation systems aim to improve the performance of GPS/GLONASS. The major regional augmentation systems are WAAS, EGNOS (European Geostationary National Overlay Service), MTSAT-Based Satellite Augmentation System (MSAS) in Japan and Indian GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) GPS and GLONASS stand out among the list when it comes to military applications. GPS and GLONASS have been used in many military operations. 1.3 Global Positioning Systems (GPS) US Global Positioning System (GPS) was designed as a dual-use technology (civilian and military use). The positioning service available to civil users is called Standard Positioning Service, while that of the military is called Precise Positioning Service. GPSs Precise Positioning Service (PPS) is used for most military applications. Precise Positioning Service is restricted to only US military, NATO forces, and other users licensed by US Government. The encrypted precise code signals P(Y) and M-code are used for military applications. M- Code is a new signal being to realise the fundamental aim of achieving precise and accurate navigation services for military applications. These signals are broadcasted in link 1 (L1) and link 2 (L2) bands. L1C-d and L1C-p signals will be added to the PPS users under the GPS phased modernisation programme (Groves, 2008: 12). In times of navigation data messages, MNAV message broadcasts are broadcast on M-code signals. GPS is presently undergoing p hased restructuring and modernisation and it is expected that new programme will ensure that existing users are transmitted P(Y) code while the new users are transmitted new M code (Kaplan and Hegarty (2006: 654). 1.4. GLONASS Like GPS, GLONASS was conceived as a military system but designed to offer both military and civil positioning service (Groves 2008: 17). GLONASS P code signals are used for military applications and transmitted in both bands LI and L2 with frequencies 1592.95MHz 1613.86MHz and 1237.83 MHz 1256MHz respectively (Groves, 2008: 19). GLONASS K, fully modernised satellites are set to broadcast new signals that will improve the accuracy of military operations. 2.0 GNSS Positioning Requirements: The positioning principles are basically the same for GNSS systems. Generally, a GNSS receiver records three or more satellites signals to determine a 2 dimensional coordinates, while four or more signals are needed for 3 dimensional coordinates. The accuracy of GNSS position solution depends on the type of GNSS device used and application under consideration. Accuracy: Accuracy is a critical factor in military applications. GPS was launched because of the military requirements for high accurate global navigation (Len, 2007:185). In case of timing service, military operations require precise time transfer for synchronization of equipment and various operations (Len 2007: 184). The GPS PPS offers horizontal accuracy of 1.2m and vertical accuracy of 1.9m based on 24 satellite constellations (Groves, 2008). With its modernisation program, GLONASS is set to compete with GPS as it planned to achieve the same positioning accuracy with GPS. The Galileo Public-Regulated Service (PRS) has a lower accuracy when compared to that of GPS PPS; it has horizontal accuracy of 3m and vertical accuracy of 6m, much more lower to its Open Service (Groves, 2008: 20) Availability: Availability is also of the important characteristics of GNSS performance. Availability of navigation system is defined by US Federal Radionavigation Plan (FRP) as the percentage of time that the services of the system are within the required performance limits (Wang et al 2006: 1). Global availability of GNSS for military applications is expected to increase with the ongoing modernisation of GLONASS. GLONASS K satellites when fully launched will improve the accuracy of P code for military applications. India has partnered with Russia in the GLONASS project, and it is expected that India and other countries will have access GLONASS military signals for their mission operations and equipment testing. Aside from GPS military signals, more countries are today using civil signals in many military missions and equipment testing. Integrity: GPS will have full integrity monitoring and alert system as the fourth segment when the modernisation programme is completed. GLONASS K satellites will broadcast integrity information and differential corrections in L3 band. Similarly, Galileo will broadcast integrity alerts and some differential corrections. 2.1 GNSS Markets GNSS technology is naturally divided into two broad markets/applications civil / commercial markets and military markets. The user equipment used in military applications can be classified into two types: (i) GNSS receivers operated by human beings such as handheld type, human operated receivers on ships, aircrafts and vehicles (Len, 2007: 184 -185) (ii) Autonomous receivers these are not dependent of any human operation and usually integrated with inertial sensors. They are used in guided missile programs and newer military applications. Comparison between Military and Civil Receivers Military Civil Frequencies L1, L2 L1 and /or L1, L2 (L5 on 11F satellites Codes P(Y), M, C/A, C C/A and C (on modernised satellites Size/weight/power Card, handheld, receiver unit Chips, handheld, receiver unit Navigation accuracy 1m to 5m 5m to 10m Anti interference Greater than 54 dB Usually not more than 24 dB Integration A/J antennas, communications, inertial sensors Speed/heading sensors, communications, GIS, inertial sensors Adapted from (Len 2007: 183) 3.0 Military Applications of GNSS Of all GNSS, GPS has been most widely used in military applications. Essentially, GPS was developed to satisfy military requirements for a global positioning, navigation and timing service. (Kaplan, and Hegarty, 2006: 654). Military application of GPS started in late 1970s when GPS was used for weapon testing in the then US Navy Submarine Launched Ballistic Program (SLBM). GPS was used to track the Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles from a ship as the missile travelled down the Atlantic (Len, 2007: 174). The GPS military equipment used for the missile testing then made use of translator. Subsequently, other weapon testing was conducted in the air and ground vehicles (Len, 2007: 177). Today, GPS can be deployed to variety of military applications. Some of these include: target acquisition; missile guidance, search and rescue; coordinate bombing; precision survey, instrument approach; antisubmarine warfare; range instrumentation; remotely piloted vehicle operations; barebase operati ons; close air support; en route navigation; command and control; field artillery and shore bombardment; rendezvous, sensor emplacement etc. (Len, 2007: 177 -178). Other military applications of GNSS include mine location, enemy radar location, Special Forces intelligence gathering etc (Dye and Baylin, 1997: 82). 3.1 GNSS/ Inertial Integration Systems: GNSS such as GPS has been proved to be weak in term of providing high quality and reliable position solution (Spirent, 2010). Thus inertial sensors are being used in many applications to complement GNSS. Inertial navigation system is a small, self contained device that uses inertial sensors (accelerometers and gyroscopes) to calculate position and velocity solution of a moving object (Logsdon, 1995: 39). It makes use of dead reckoning navigation system (Groves 2008: 7). Using GPS measurements, INS navigation solution is calibrated and corrected via integration algorithm (Groves and Long, 2005: 2). GPS/INS integration is popular in the guided weapons and unmanned air vehicles (UAVs) where low cost sensors are used (Groves and Long, 2005: 2). INS function independently of GNSS signals susceptible to jamming, interference, enemy manipulation and other distortions and are therefore used in many military applications (Dye and Baylin, 1997: 13). Examples of practical applications of GNSS/ INS based solutions are given in the report. Advantages of GNSS/INS based solution: INS offers continuous navigation operations; it provides high-bandwidth output (50 Hz) and low short-term noise; it also provides attitude, angular rate, and acceleration measurements as well as position and velocity (Groves and Long 2005: 419) (Groves 2008: 8). GPS provides a high accuracy which does not drift with time(Groves and Long, 2005: 419) Disadvantages of GNSS/INS based solution: The accuracy of INS output is degraded with time thus necessitating the need to calibrate the errors (Groves 2008: 8). Unlike INS, GNSS has lower bandwidth (1Hz), more noisier than that INS and does not usually include altitude (Groves and Long 2005: 419, 420) One obvious challenge in the military use of GNSS is issue of deliberate jamming and interference by the enemies. GPS receivers have been found to be susceptible to jamming due to low signal power of GPS signal. This trend has raised a concern to US Department of Defence in the recent years thus signalling the programme of developing various anti-jamming techniques to mitigate these effects. Recent anti jamming technologies include nulling of antennas and ultra tight coupling of the GPS and the inertial sensors (Kaplan, and Hegarty (2006: 656). 3.2 Practical Applications of GPS in Precision Guidance In 1991, US army and its allies successfully deployed GPS in the attack to rescue oil rich Kuwait after its invasion by Iraq in an operation tagged Operation Desert Storm. GPS receivers were fitted in the military aircrafts and helicopters, bombs were dropped from these aircrafts as targeted thus eliminating unwanted casualties. GPS receivers were used to know the coordinates of the targets so that the weapons can be delivered accurately. In 1995, GPS was also deployed during the Bosnia war by the combined US and NATO forces in a campaign tagged Operation Deliberate Force. Military aircrafts operating from their base in Italy were fully equipped with GPS equipment in the strike against the Bosnia Serb forces. Perhaps, the Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) is the most impressive breakthrough GPS has achieved in area of precision guidance. JDAM is an independent, tail kit with gravity bomb; it is usually mounted on the military fighter jets and uses GPS/INS guidance to deliver the target (Cozzens, 2006). JDAM has the capability of working in all weather conditions and its accuracy is not dependent on the altitude (Cozzens, 2006). JDAM recorded 9.6m accuracy during their testing. JDAM have been successfully deployed in many operations. For example, in June 2006, US Air Force successfully used GBU-38 Joint Direct Attack Munition equipped with GPS precision guidance to kill former Iraq terrorist leader Abu Musab al Zarqawi in his house (Cozzens, 2006). Once on the air, GPS/INS guidance enables the gravity bomb to be delivered accurately at the targets (Cozzens, 2006). In case of GLONASS, Russian military has deployed GLONASS military signals in many missions (Len, 2007: 189). Russian Federation Airforce recently developed latest KAB family of weapons called KAB 500S. KAB 500S is a guided bomb similar to that of US JDAM. KAB 500S can be dropped from aircraft at altitudes of 500 to 10,000 metres and airspeeds of 550 to 1,100 kilometres per hour (Deagel, 2007). It uses GLONASS Military code and INS to strike the targets (Len, 2007: 189). The third generation GNSS, Galileo has encrypted signal Public Regulated Service that may be used for military applications in the near future. 4.0 GNSS Future and Military Applications: The GNSS have made giant strides in military applications particularly in area of guided weaponry and smart bombs. GPS-aided munitions, ranging from artillery shells to smart shells have proved to be a reliable technology in recent time in times of accuracy (Lucio, (2002), (Wells, (2001). Countries all over the world will continue to embrace these technologies as cheaper GPS/INS coupled munitions are being produced to meet the requirements for accurate, precise timing and navigation solutions in the land, air and sea in near future. Current developments in GNSS industry like new signals and constellations acquisition will usher new era of high accurate military based satellite navigation. The separation of GPS signals for military and civilian use will lessen the effects of jamming and interference in military operations coupled with high signal power of new M code. GPS new military code will improve the anti-jamming capability of the system as current modernisation programme will make it autonomous. Non coherence integration of the acquisition circuit of the new military code will enhance the performance of the system in the presence of noise and jamming (Betz et al, 2005: 45, 46). In the area of system integrity, modernization programme of GPS and GLONASS will offer users more reliable measurements as they will have options to validate GNSS measurements. Presently, only GPS and GLONASS are used for military applications. I look at future where GNSS will be more available for military applications. More countries will be authorised to have access to GPS P(Y) code in near future and others will want develop their own SBASs. For example, Nigeria has developed its own SBAS called NIGCOMSAT with coverage only in Nigeria for now. Modernised GPS civil signals will continue to be used by countries not authorised to use P(Y) code. Only, recently, Russian Government announced that GLONASS military signals will be freely made available to any country that want to use them. Already, India and Russian have agreed to collaborate on GLONASS project (Len, 2007: 190). It is expected that more Countries will enter into agreements with Russian when GLONASS constellation of satellites are fully deployed in the orbit. China is making steady progress on its Compass project and is poised to use the system to strengthen its national security. Finally, GNSS industry is geared for revolution when Galileo is fully operationalised in next few years. Galileo has an encrypted signal PRS which has potentials for military applications. It is already been speculated that this may be used for military applications in the near future, although Galileo is purely conceived as a civilian system.